https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asia
The Chalcolithic period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BCE, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BCE, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding).[3] This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BCE. During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into Hinduism, a religion based on the caste system of class (which consisted of the four varnas), the brahmanpriesthood, and the developing semi-monotheism
China and Vietnam were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam. Song Da bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, Vietnam
In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BCE.
In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad (3500–500 BCE)
Middle East[edit]
The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly centralized government, and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in Darius the Great's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism, developed by the philosopher Zoroaster. It introduced an early form of monotheism to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an end time, and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell. These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses. More importantly, Zoroastrianism would be an important precursor for the Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.
The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia.
By 600 BCE, India had been divided into sixteen regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves. In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the province Bactria but could not move further because his army was afraid of the foot soldiers of India. Shortly prior, the soldierChandragupta Maurya began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: मौर्य राजवंश, Maurya Rājavanśha) was the geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BCE. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to the Himalayas in the north, what is now Assam in the east, probably beyond modern Pakistan in the west, and annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, at its greatest extent. India was united for the first time in the Maurya empire. The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power. It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service. Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka, greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save for the southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invaders from the northwest, establishing the Kushan Empire. Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.
The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 CE, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in 320, the Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गुप्त राजवंश, Gupta Rājavanśha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage. Their rule covered less land than the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability. In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the Huns
Classical China[edit]
Zhou Dynasty[edit]
Since 1029 BCE, the Zhou Dynasty (Chinese: 周朝; pinyin: Zhōu Cháo; Wade–Giles: Chou Ch'ao [tʂóʊ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ]), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BCE. The Zhou dynasty had been using a feudal system by giving power to local nobility and relying on their loyalty in order to control its large territory. As a result, the Chinese government at this time tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to resolve national issues. Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the creation of the Mandate of Heaven, which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule. The Zhou additionally discouraged the human sacrifice of the preceding eras and unified the Chinese language. Finally, the Zhou government encouraged settlers to move into the Yangtze River valley, thus creating the Chinese Middle Kingdom.
But by 500 BCE, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions and internal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families. This was lessened by the many philosophical movements, starting with the life of Confucius. His philosophical writings (called Confucianism) concerning the respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in the Han Dynasty. Additionally, Laozi's concepts of Taoism, including yin and yang and the innate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period. Nevertheless, the Zhou Dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more power and their conflict devolved into the Warring States period, from 402 to 201 BCE.
Qin Dynasty[edit]
One leader eventually came on top, Qin Shi Huang (Chinese: 始皇帝, Shǐ Huángdì), who overthrew the last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty. The Qin Dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 207 BCE. The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy that would rely on him for power. Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to the South China Sea and northern Vietnam. Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated road building (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and spoken language. Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement of silk manufacturing, and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China—designed to keep out the nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people. However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him. He oppressed Confucians and promoted Legalism, the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful government was needed to control them. Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and rejected the pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous. All of this made Shi Huang extremely unpopular with the people. As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began to fight for control of China.
Han Dynasty[edit]
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo ;206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han Dynasty's greatest emperors,Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.
The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Romans, through the Silk Road, with which they were able to trade many commodities—primarily silk. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the Silk Road, which connected China, India, the Middle East and Europe. Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national "religion" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as a philosophy). Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to all scholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was further improved with the introduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit. These bureaucrats were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked by the lower-class brought into the bureaucracy through their skill. The Chinese imperial bureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over 2,000 years. The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and the general lives of its people. The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientific research, and detailed historical records.
However, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by the turn of the Common Era. As the Han Dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into submission until China was left in a state of chaos. By 100 CE, philosophical activity slowed, and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy. Local landlords began to take control as the scholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry. Taoists began to gain significant ground and protested the decline. They started to proclaim magical powers and promised to save China with them; the Taoist Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 (led by rebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government. The aforementioned Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han Dynasty by 220. The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries, where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China. This period of chaos and attempts at order is commonly known as that of the Six Dynasties. The first part of this included the Three Kingdoms which started in 220 and describes the brief and weak successor "dynasties" that followed the Han. In 265, the Jin dynasty of China was started and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China. In 420, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in the first of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Northern and Southern Dynasties passed through until finally, by 557, the Northern Zhou Dynasty ruled the north and the Chen Dynasty ruled the south.
Islamic Middle East[edit]
At the beginning of the Medieval Age in 500, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the
Sassanid Empire in Persia (modern-day Iran), and the Byzantine Empire in Turkey. In the Arabian peninsula (now
Saudi Arabia), the nomadic
Bedouin tribes dominated the desert, where they worshipped idols and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was very limited, save for a few regions near the coast.
Mecca and
Medina were two of these cites that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants.
arly Islamic Empire[edit]
From 613 to 630,
Muhammad spread the faith of Islam in the Arabian desert, culminating in his victory at
Mecca. He then unified the tribes into an Islamic Empire, ruled by a religious and political leader, the
caliph. They would proceed to conquer the Sassanids, and modern-day
Syria,
Palestine,
Egypt, and
Libya. An Arabic navy was created that soon dominated the Mediterranean, crippled the Byzantine Empire, and put it under siege for centuries to come. Issues in deciding the caliphs to succeed Muhammad led to the
Ridda wars and eventually the
Sunni-
Shia split, two different sects of Islam; the Sunni eventually became dominant and established the
Umayyad Caliphate.
The Umayyad were centered at their capital,
Damascus in what's now Syria. With the Umayyad came more conquest, giving them rule over central Asia, most of northern
Africa, and from there, the
Iberian Peninsula (modern-day
Spain and
Portugal). Little conversion occurred at this time due to the disrespect non-Arab Muslims, or mawali (
Arabic: موالي), received from the Umayyad.
Christians and
Jews were treated with more respect as dhimmi (
Arabic: ذمي), specifically the Ahl al-Kitab (
Arabic: أهل الكتاب) or "people of the book," referring to the
Holy Bible which they all shared. During the Umayyad age, women's position also improved from that of pre-Islamic Arabia; Muhammad's teachings banned adultery, encouraged marriage and kindness to wives and daughters, and proclaimed equality of women and men "in the eyes of God.
Abbasid Empire[edit]
The Abbasid Empire at its greatest extent
The Umayyad Empire began to decline in the early 8th century when its leaders became more and more detached from their people, especially the warriors who had fought for their conquest. A new political group, the Abbasids, joined the upset warriors, Shia, and mawali, and overthrew the Umayyad in 750 during the
Battle of the Zab. The remaining Umayyads fled to
Iberia, and established the independent, Muslim
Caliphate of Córdoba. The establishment of the
Abbasid Caliphate started with moving the capital to
Baghdad in Persia (now Iraq) in 762 and with this came the application of certain Persian political institutions. This included the creation of an absolute monarchy, which ruled without question, as well as an improved bureaucracy, led by the
wazir who took most of the political and administrative responsibilities the caliph previously had. The Abbasid also experienced a boom in trade, specifically that at sea, sending
dhows that continued expansion, first by sending merchants and missionaries to
India and
Southeast Asia. Eventually conflict would arise due to a piracy issue in India, and the Abbasid would begin to conquer the western area of India which they traded with. The first expedition was led by
Turkishgeneral
Qutb-ud-din Aybak and established the
Mamluk Sultanate in 1206, ruled by the sultan (
Arabic: سلطان) which means "authority."
However, the Abbasid government soon fell to the same vices as the Umayyad. Different factions in the royal court would fight for power, especially various groups of the
Turkic peoples. The caliph began to rely on advisors from wealthy families, which would sometimes render him a mere puppet. This happened when the Persian
Buyid dynasty was established in 934. The Shia government lasted only a little over a century. They were quickly overpowered by the Turkish people who would create the
Seljuq dynasty by 1051, reestablishing the Sunni government. Nevertheless, succession issues and the squabbling factions would continue through the
First Crusade, launched by Christian western Europeans in 1095, which was largely ignored by the more powerful Muslim princes despite its success at capturing
Jerusalem. The next eight
Crusades would succeed to varying degrees, and the Christians would lose considerable ground when the Muslims were united under
Saladin in the late 12th century. By 1291, after the
final crusade and the fall of
Acre, the Christians had lost all of the territory they originally gained.
The increasingly divided regions of the Abbasid caliphate would face new challenges in the early 13th century, during the invasion of the
central Asian nomadic peoples, the
Mongols; led by the infamous
Genghis Khan, the Mongols raided much of the eastern empire. In 1258, Genghis Khan's grandson
Hulegu Khan would finish his grandfather's work with the sacking of Baghdad and the death of the caliph. The Mongols eventually retreated, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the weak and limping caliphate was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol,
Timur, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the
Ottomans. Based in
Anatolia, by 1566 they would conquer the
Mesopotamia region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the
Ottoman Empire. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Postclassical Era in the Middle East, and of the caliphate.
The Indian early medieval age, 600 to 1200, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When
Harsha of
Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the
Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the
Pala king of
Bengal. When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the
Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the
Pandyas and the
Cholas from still farther south. No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region. During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.
[18]
The
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region, beginning during the period of the ascendancy of the
Rajput Kingdoms in North India, although
Sindh and Multan were captured in 8th century
Sui Dynasty[edit]
A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580s, amongst the divided factions of China. This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou Dynasty. He proclaimed himself
Emperor Wen of Sui and appeased the nomadic military by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen Dynasty and united China once more under the
Sui Dynasty. The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market. Later Wen's son would murder him for the throne and declare himself
Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to reconquer Korea. His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618, ending the Sui Dynasty.
Tang dynasty[edit]
Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himself
Emperor Gaozu, and established the
Tang dynasty in 623. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the west,
Vietnam in the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved the education of scholars in the Chinese bureaucracy. A Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs. In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the
Pure Land and
Zen strains, respectively. Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism was
Empress Wu, who additionally claimed an unofficial "Zhou Dynasty" and displayed China's tolerance of a woman ruler, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them.
The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of
Emperor Xuanzong, who began to neglect the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine,
Yang Guifei, and her family. This eventually sparked a revolt in 755. Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various factions led by the aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Song dynasty[edit]
By 960, most of China had been reunited under the
Song dynasty, although it lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there—the
Liao dynasty of the highly sinicized
Khitan people. From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The Song also saw the revival of Confucianism in the form of
Neo-Confucianism. This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified the reduction of power in women. The infamous practice of
foot binding developed in this period as a result. Eventually the Liao dynasty in the north was overthrown by the
Jin dynasty of the Manchu-related
Jurchen people. The new Jin kingdom
invaded northern China, leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the
Southern Song dynasty in 1126. There, cultural life flourished.
Yuan Dynasty[edit]
By 1227, the Mongols had conquered the
Western Xia kingdom northwest of China. Soon the Mongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens. Chinese cities were soon besieged by the Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinese were quickly losing territory. In 1271 the current great khan,
Kublai Khan, claimed himself Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan Dynasty. By 1290, all of China was under control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreign invader; the new capital was established at
Khanbaliq (modern-day
Beijing). Kublai Khan segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors.
Mongol women displayed a contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women who continued to be suppressed. Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war. Kublai's wife,
Chabi, was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political and diplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in order to make them easier to rule. However this was not enough to affect Chinese women's position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese and even Mongol women.
The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where it wiped out large populations in China in 1331
